Early Specialization

This is an abstract of a paper presented at a conference at the Australian Institute of Sport. I think it is fascinating because it presents some concrete research based information on the effects of early specialization

Specialization and Diversification in Early Athlete Development

Joseph Baker

School of Kinesiology and Health Science

York University

In the domain of sport, the acquisition of expertise requires negotiating biological, psychological, and socio-cultural constraints (Baker & Horton, 2004). Successful negotiation of these constraints can lead to the highest levels of performance while unsuccessful negotiation often leads to burnout and/or dropout from sport (Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989). Arguably, the most critical period of development for future sports experts, is childhood. The seeds sown during this period have a profound effect on adult achievement. However, there is contention among researchers, educators, and coaches about what form early sport involvement should take. Many developmental sport systems are based on “early specialisation” models where aspiring elite athletes limit their sport participation to a single sport, with a deliberate focus on training and development in that sport.

In point of fact, there is considerable evidence supporting the early specialisation approach. In a review of several decades of research on the effects of practice and training on learning, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993) speculated that attention to what they termed “deliberate practice” (i.e., effortful practice that lacks inherent enjoyment done with the sole purpose of improving current levels of performance) was essential to the development of expertise in any domain. Further, they argued that it was not simply the accumulation of deliberate practice hours over an extended period that lead to superior levels of performance. In their view, success is tied to the accumulation of sufficient hours of high quality training at crucial periods of biological and cognitive development. As a result, early specialisation became an important element in bringing about future success. Based on these findings, Ericsson et al. concluded that the earlier one begins focused training the greater chance they have of achieving exceptionality in their chosen domain.

While the evidence supporting early specialisation appears relatively straightforward and empirically sound, this approach has been linked to several negative consequences. In general, these consequences can be classified as having adverse effects on motor, psyhosocial, and physical development.

Effects on Motor Development: Wiersma (2000) speculated that the limited range of skills performed during early sport specialisation has the potential to limit overall motor skill development. For instance, a rower spends considerable time in a seated position performing aerobic work and although this may positively affect cardiovascular health, it is likely that it limits the development of general motor development in tasks such as jumping, running, and throwing. This limited motor development may affect long-term physical activity involvement (and therefore long-term health) by decreasing the likelihood of participation in alternative physical activities.

Effects on Psychosocial Development: Wiersma (2000) also suggested that early specialisation could stifle sociological and psychological development by reducing the number of opportunities for growth in these areas. Sport can be an excellent means of developing social skills such as cooperation and socially acceptable behaviour; however, spending too much time training may not provide enough time for social growth and can lead to “social isolation”. Further, excessive training without adequate recovery can lead to staleness and/or burnout (Henschen, 1998).

Effects on Physical Development: In a review of overuse injuries in adolescents Dalton (1992) indicated that during crucial periods of biological development excessive forms of training could have serious costs. An example of this is often seen in the knees of developing athletes. Due to rapid bone growth of the femur, tibia, and/or fibula (such as occurs through a ‘growth spurt’) tightness and inflexibility increase around the knee joint because muscles and tendons have not increased in length at the same rate as the bones. This creates an imbalance in the joint and under periods of physical training or activity increased stress is applied to the knee and connective tissues. These imbalances increase a youth’s susceptibility to knee injury from repetitive microtrauma and associated conditions (e.g., Osgood-Schlatters’s).

While these consequences are clearly harmful, perhaps the most damaging evidence against advocating the early specialisation approach concerns sport dropout. A defining characteristic of the deliberate practice activities outlined by Ericsson et al. (1993) is that they place little value on ensuring enjoyable participation. Investigations of participants who drop out of sport (e.g., Butcher, Lindner, & Johns, 2002; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989) have consistently indicated that lack of fun or enjoyment is a predominant motive for discontinuing participation in a given sport. Based on this evidence it appears that the types of training advocated by the early specialisation approach may be at odds with the level of enjoyment necessary for a long-term commitment to physical activity involvement.

In a series of studies, our research team has considered the relative value of early specialisation compared to an opposing position based on involvement in a range of sports and physical activity throughout early development (i.e., early diversification). Training data were collected based on methods proposed by Côté, Ericsson, and Law (2005) where participants provided information on the amount and content of different types of training occurring throughout their sports careers. General conclusions based on these results are presented below.

1. Early Specialisation is not necessary for Adult Expertise.

Our investigations of athletes ranging from triathletes (Baker, Côté, & Deakin, 2005) to netball players (Baker, Côté, & Abernethy, 2003) revealed that early specialisation was not the norm for expert athletes. More commonly, expert athletes had a diverse sport involvement with participation in a range of different sports during early development. Figure 1 shows the pattern of activity involvement for our examinations of triathletes and sport decision-makers (from Baker et al., 2005 and Baker et al., 2003 respectively). For all sports, there is a gradual but steady increase in activity involvement that peaks in mid to late adolescence. Following this, there is a decline in involvement, ending with a near solitary involvement in the athlete’s primary sport. The implication here is that diversification during early involvement may play a significant role in expertise development. Interestingly, a similar profile of activity involvement was found in the non-expert groups studied with one notable exception – the decrease in activity involvement typically seen in the experts during adolescence was either later in the non-experts or not at all suggesting that non-experts do not have the same focus on training during later development.

Figure 1. The pattern of activity involvement for our examinations of triathletes and sport decision-makers (from Baker et al., 2005 and Baker et al., 2003 respectively).

2. Participation in Other Sports May Develop Capacities that can be Transferred to the Domain of Expertise.

A diverse sport involvement during early development may have a beneficial role in acquiring requisite sports skills. Analysis of basketball, netball, and field hockey experts found that having a broad exposure to different sports throughout development reduced the number of hours of sport-specific training required for expertise (Baker et al., 2003). Recently, Abernethy et al. (in press) speculated that time spent in other sports may have been useful for developing pattern recognition abilities that were transferable across similar domains. Investigations of transfer of training effects in aerobic sports support the conclusion that general skills and abilities are transferable between activities that share similar performance demands (e.g., Loy, 1995). Our recent examination of performance in Ironman triathletes of varying levels of skill (Baker, Deakin, & Côté, in press) corroborate this inference. Furthermore, the range and depth of involvement in other activities as a child and adolescent was found to have some value in predicting performance as an adult.
Summary
It seems clear from this research that the relationship between training and skill development is not as simple as outlined by Ericsson et al.’s theory of deliberate practice. Our investigations suggest that a diversified involvement in early development is not as detrimental to elite development as previously believed, although this may be restricted to sports with later ages of peak performance (cf. Gymnastics, Law, Côté, & Ericsson, in press). Understanding the task demands underpinning expert performance in a specific sport is essential for understanding the types and amount of training necessary at different stages. Sports emphasising abilities that peak later in development can allow greater flexibility during early development than sports with abilities that peak earlier. But eventually, all future expert athletes must adopt a program of training that focuses on deliberate practice. Without a long term commitment to high quality training athletes will be unable to attain elite levels of performance. All the same, coaches and parents should consider the consequences of structured training during early development as these experiences have a profound influence on involvement in sport and physical activity across the lifespan.

References

Abernethy, B., Baker, J., & Côté, J. (2004). Transfer of pattern recall skills as a contributor to the development of sport expertise. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Baker, J., Côté, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). Sport-specific training, deliberate practice and the development of expertise in team ball sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 12-25.

Baker, J., Côté , J., & Deakin, J. (2005). Expertise in ultra-endurance triathletes: Early sport involvement, training structure and the theory of deliberate practice. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 64-78.

Baker, J., Deakin, J., & Côté, J. (in press). On the utility of deliberate practice: Predicting performance in ultra-endurance triathletes from training indices. International Journal of Sport Psychology.

Baker, J., & Horton, S. (2004). A Review of Primary and Secondary Influences on Sport Expertise. High Ability Studies, 15, 211-228.

Butcher, J., Lindner, K. J., & Johns, D. P. (2002). Withdrawal from competitive youth sport: A retrospective ten-year study. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25, 145-163.

Cobley, S., & Baker, J. (2005). Developing elite rugby players: The role of sport specific practice and involvement in other sports. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Côté, J., Ericsson, K. A., & Law, M. (2005). Tracing the development of athletes using retrospective interview methods: A proposed interview and validation procedure for reported information. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 1-19.

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406.

Henschen, K. P. (1998). Athletic staleness and burnout: Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (3rd ed., pp. 398-408). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Law, M. P., Côté, J, & Ericsson, K. A. (in press). Characteristics of expert development in rhythmic gymnastics: A retrospective study. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.

Loy, S. F., Hoffmann, J. J., & Holland, G. J. (1995). Benefits and practical use of cross-training in sports. Sports Medicine, 19, 1-8.

Weiss, M. R., & Petlichkoff, L. M. (1989). Children’s motivation for participation in and withdrawal from sport: Identifying the missing links. Pediatric Exercise Science, 1, 195-211.

Wiersma, L. D. (2000). Risks and benefits of youth sport specialization: Perspectives and recommendations. Pediatric Exercise Science, 12, 13-22.